Journal of Archaeology in the Low Countries 3-1 (November 2011)Wietske Prummel; Hülya Halici; Annemieke Verbaas: The bone and antler tools from the Wijnaldum-Tjitsma terp 1
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3 The animal species represented

Bones of four domestic mammal species and four wild species were used to make tools. The domestic species are horse (Equus caballus), pig (Sus domesticus), cattle (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries) (table 2). Because no goat bones are among the identified mammal bone fragments from Wijnaldum-Tjitsma (table 3), the tools identified as ‘sheep or goat’ are also considered to be sheep bones. The four wild animal species are red deer (Cervus elaphus), elk (Alces alces), an unknown whale species (Cetacea) and a whooper swan or a mute swan (Cygnus cygnus or C. olor) (table 2). No elk and whale bones were identified among the bone fragments that were not processed into tools (table 3).

Table 2 The animal species that are represented in the bone and antler tools, unfinished tools and production waste and the numbers (above) and percentages (below) for each species in each period.

Period

Roman

Migration

Merovingian

Carolingian

Ottonian

no phase

total

Equus caballus, horse

1

1

1

2

3

-

8

Sus domesticus, pig

-

2

6

2

-

4

14

Bos taurus, cattle

5

2

12

9

4

8

40

Ovis aries, sheep

1

-

-

2

-

-

3

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat

3

5

7

2

2

5

24

Cervus elaphus, red deer

2

28

38

20

11

17

116

Alces alces, elk

-

1

-

-

-

1

2

Cetacea, whale

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

Cygnus cygnus, whooper swan, or Cygnys olor, mute swan

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

Cattle/horse size group

-

-

6

5

-

-

11

Unknown size group

-

8

17

6

6

6

43

Total

12

47

88

49

26

41

263

in %

Roman

Migration

Meroving.

Karoling.

Ottonian

no phase

%

Equus caballus, horse

8

2

1

4

12

0

3,0

Sus domesticus, pig

0

4

7

4

0

10

5,3

Bos taurus, cattle

42

4

14

18

15

20

15,2

Ovis aries, sheep

8

0

0

4

0

0

1,1

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat

25

11

8

4

8

12

9,1

Cervus elaphus, red deer

17

60

43

41

42

41

44,1

Alces alces, elk

0

2

0

0

0

2

0,8

Cetacea, whale

0

0

1

0

0

0

0,4

Cygnus cygnus, whooper swan, or Cygnys olor, mute swan

0

0

0

2

0

0

0,4

Cattle/horse size group

0

0

7

10

0

0

4,2

Unknown size group

0

17

19

12

23

15

16,3

Total

100

100

100

100

100

100

100,0

Table 3 The mammal species identified at the Wijnaldum-Tjitsma terp and the proportion used to make bone and antler tools; nisp unworked remains: numbers of identified mammal bone fragments not used in bone and antler working; n tools: number of tools for each species (compare table 2) and the proportion of bone and antler tools.

Species

nisp unworked remains

n tools

total

% tools

Canis familiaris, dog

69

0

69

0

Felis catus, cat

79

0

79

0

Equus caballus, horse

86

8

94

9

Sus domesticus, pig

266

14

280

5

Bos taurus, cattle

1601

40

1641

2

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat*

2881

27

2908

1

Capreolus capreolus, roe deer

1

0

1

0

Cervus elaphus, red deer

6

116

122

95

Putorius putorius, european polecat

1

0

1

0

Halichoerus grypus, gray seal

1

0

1

0

Phocoena phocoena, harbour porpoise

2

0

2

0

Alces alces, elk

0

2

2

100

Cetacea, whale

0

1

1

100

Homo sapiens, human

7

0

7

0

subtotal

5000

208

5208

4

unidentified mammal remains

73000

54

73054

0

total

78000

262

78262

0

* including the remains of Ovis aries, sheep

The majority of tools (44%) are made from red deer bones, specifically antler (table 2). The antler of red deer and - in very small numbers – elk was the favourite raw material for bone tools at Wijnaldum-Tjitsma because it is easily processed, flexibile and strong (Ulbricht 1978; Ambrosiani 1981; MacGregor 1985; Rijkelijkhuizen 2008). The high proportions of red deer from the Migration period onward (table 2: 41-60%) are connected to the introduction of the antler combs at the site in the Migration period. Elk and red deer antler are not very easily distinguished (Ambrosiani 1981). The majority of the antler tools were presumably made of red deer antlerin view of the general raity of elk in the northern costal region, and listed as such (tables 1 and 4).

Red deer and elk were probably rare species in the salt marsh area (Prummel & Heinrich 2005). The few postcranial red deer bones found at the terp (table 3) suggest that red deer was only occasionally hunted near Wijnaldum. Male red deer that were hunted between August and February delivered antler, whereas shed antlers could be collected in February and March. Antlers were possibly also acquired from areas where red deer and elk were more numerous. Most antler objects found at Wijnaldum, however, were probably imported as ready-made tools, since there is no antler waste.

The second and third most common species are cattle and sheep, representing 15% and 10% of all tools. The bone workers preferred the larger cattle bones over those of sheep (tables 2 and 3). Sheep astragali, however, were more often used than those of cattle (table 4). The high proportions for tools from cattle and sheep bones in the Roman period (table 2: 42% and 25%) are mainly the result of the use of astragali during this period (tables 1 and 4).

Pig and horse bones represent 5% and 3% of the bone tools (table 2). Pigs and horses were not very numerous at the site (table 3). Pig fibulae, however, were the preferred bones to make needles at least in the Merovingian and Carolingian periods (table 4). Horse radii, metacarpi and metatarsi were, because of their greater length, were used to make bone skates and sledge runners. Transport on skates and sledges was obviously popular during the Ottonian period (tables 1 and 4).

Table 4 The animal species and the types and numbers of skeletal elements represented in the bone and antler tools, unfinished tools and production waste for each period.

Period

Roman

Migration

Merovingian

Carolingian

Ottonian

no phase

Tool type

Species, element

total

pin beater

Cetacea, mandible

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

pin beater

Cattle/horse size group, long bone

-

-

4

1

-

-

5

pin beater

Unknown size group, long bone

-

2

1

-

1

-

4

needle, complete

Cattle/horse size group, ?

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

needle, complete

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, long bone

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

needle, complete

Sus domesticus, pig, fibula

-

1

3

1

-

4

9

needle, complete

Unknown size group, long bone

-

2

1

-

-

-

3

needle, with eye

Sus domesticus, pig, fibula

-

-

3

1

-

-

4

needle, with eye

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

needle, with eye

Cattle/horse size group, ?

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

needle, with eye

Unknown size group, costa & long bone

-

-

2

1

1

-

4

needle, point

Cattle/horse size group, ?

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

needle, point

Unknown size group, ?

-

-

4

1

3

1

9

needle, unfinished

Bos taurus, cattle, costa

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

needle, unfinished

Cattle/horse size group, long bone

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

awl

Cattle/horse size group, long bone

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

awl

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, metatarsus

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

awl, unfinished

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, mandible

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

spindle whorl, disc shape

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

2

-

-

-

2

spindle whorl, planoconvex

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

spindle whorl, round

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

spindle whorl, caput femoris

Bos taurus, cattle, femur

-

-

2

-

-

2

4

spindle whorl, caput femoris, unfinished

Bos taurus, cattle, femur

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

polishing / rubbing instrument

Equus caballus, horse, metatarsus

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

polishing / rubbing instrument

Bos taurus, cattle, humerus & metatarsus

1

-

1

-

1

-

3

polishing / rubbing instrument

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

1-sided composite comb, type 1

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

2

-

-

3

5

1-sided composite comb, type 2

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

1

1

-

1

3

1-sided composite comb, type 3

Bos taurus, cattle, metacarpus

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

1-sided composite comb, type 3

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

1-sided composite comb, type 3

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, costa

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

1-sided composite comb, type 3

Unknown size group, long bone

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

1-sided composite comb, type 4

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

1-sided composite comb, type 5

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

1-sided composite comb, tooth plate

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

3

4

2

2

12

1-sided composite comb, tooth plate

Unknown size group, ?

-

-

1

-

-

2

3

1-sided composite comb, end tooth plate

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

1

2

2

2

8

1-sided composite comb, end tooth plate

Unknown size group, ?

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

1-sided composite comb, side plate

Bos taurus, cattle, long bone

-

-

-

2

-

-

2

1-sided composite comb, side plate

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

7

8

9

1

4

29

1-sided composite comb, side plate

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

1-sided composite comb, side plate

Unknown size group, costa, long bone & ?

-

-

1

2

1

1

5

2-sided composite comb, complete

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

2-sided composite comb, tooth plate

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

3

-

-

-

3

2-sided composite comb, tooth plate

Unknown size group, ?

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

2-sided composite comb, side plate

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

2

-

1

-

3

2-sided composite comb, fragment

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

1

-

-

-

2

2-sided composite comb, fragment

Unknown size group, ?

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

comb fragment

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

2

5

1

1

-

9

comb, unfinished

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

4

-

-

1

-

5

pin (clothes/hair)

Sus domesticus, pig, fibula

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

pin (clothes/hair)

Unknown size group, ?

-

-

5

-

-

-

5

ring

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

2

-

-

1

1

4

ring

Unknown size group, ?

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

bead, unfinished

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

amulet/pendant

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

2

1

1

-

4

amulet/pendant, unfinished

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

1

-

1

-

-

-

2

dice (also used in gaming?)

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, metatarsus

-

2

-

-

-

-

2

astragalus, used/decorated

Bos taurus, cattle, astragalus

3

2

-

1

-

1

7

astragalus, used/decorated

Ovis aries, sheep, astragalus

1

-

-

2

-

-

3

astragalus, used/decorated

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, astragalus

3

1

3

-

-

2

9

flute

Cygnus cygnus or Cygnus olor, ulna

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

flute (unfinished)

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, tibia

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

costa, sawn (musical instrument?)

Bos taurus, cattle, costa

-

-

1

1

-

-

2

tuning fork

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

box

Bos taurus, cattle, long bone

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

spoon

Bos taurus, cattle, cranium (foetus)

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

spoon

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

sieve

Bos taurus, cattle, scapula

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

plate (inlay?)

Bos taurus, cattle, costa

-

-

1

1

-

-

2

plate (inlay?)

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, scapula

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

handle

Equus caballus, horse, metacarpus

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

handle

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

checker (used in gaming)

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

checker (used in gaming)

Unknown size group, ?

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

skate

Bos taurus, cattle, radius

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

skate

Equus caballus, horse, radius & metacarpus

-

1

-

2

1

-

4

skate

Cattle/horse size group, long bone

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

skate

Unknown size group, long bone

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

sledge runner

Equus caballus, horse, metatarsus

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

point/tip of skating stick

Bos taurus, cattle, radius, femur, tibia & metatarsus

-

-

1

2

2

2

7

point/tip of skating stick

Equus caballus, horse, metacarpus

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

point/tip of skating stick(?)

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, metatarsus, tibia

-

-

1

-

-

1

2

waste/unfinished, type unknown

Bos taurus, cattle, mandible

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

waste/unfinished, type unknown

Alces alces, antler

-

1

-

-

-

1

2

waste/unfinished, type unknown

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

1

5

2

-

-

2

10

waste of horn working

Bos taurus, cattle, horn core

-

-

1

-

-

1

2

type unkown

Bos taurus, cattle, costa

-

-

2

-

-

1

3

type unkown

Cervus elaphus, red deer, antler

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

type unkown

Ovis aries/Capra hircus, sheep/goat, radius, metacarpus & phalanx 1

-

-

1

2

-

1

4

type unkown

Unknown size group, ?

-

-

1

2

-

-

3

Total

12

47

88

49

26

41

263

Whale and swan bones were rarely used for tool production. The single whale bone presumably belonged to an animal that was stranded or drifted as a dead animal to the coast. Used and worked whale bones are sometimes found at terp sites, for instance in Englum, where a humerus of an unidentified whale with chop marks was found in an undated feature (Prummel 2008), Achlum, where a caudal vertebra of a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) with perforations was found (Hullegie 2010; Hullegie & Prummel in prep.) and Jelsum, where a cranium fragment of a whale was found (GIA unpublished).

Cattle horn was also used to make tools. At Wijnaldum-Tjitsma this is represented by two cattle horn cores with sawing marks, one from the Merovingian period and one undated. The nature of the objects remains unknown, but they could have been one-piece combs, which are found in some terpen, for example the two presumably Late Medieval horn combs from Leeuwarden-Gouveneursplein, find nos. 329 and 349: De Langen 1992, fig. 116). Horn does not survive well in terpen, just like hair, skins and tendons. These animal parts were certainly used at the terp. No objects made from teeth, including ivory, or of mollusc shell were found.