Microfossil analysis
For the study of microfossils, twenty-five sub-samples from the 85 cm high profile were prepared according to Faegri & Iversen (1989). Pollen, fern spores, fungal spores and other palynomorphs were recorded with a magnification of 400x (and 1000x when necessary). Pollen identification was performed with help of an extensive reference collection and with the keys and illustrations by Moore et al. (1991) and Beug (2004).
During the initial analysis no distinction was made within the Cerealia-pollen type (measuring more than 38 µm; diameter of annulus more than 8 µm), because relatively large pollen grains of some wild grass species (e.g. Glyceria and Bromus) are difficult to distinguish from pollen of Cerealia (Beug 2004). Cereals and wild grasses however, grow in different habitats. Glyceria usually grows in moist to wet habitats, while cereals are usually cultivated on dryer soils. Therefore, at a later stage, all large Poaceae pollen grains were measured again (total diameter; size of pore and annulus) and in addition to the size, the ratio between pore diameter and annulus width was also measured because relatively large pores are also an indication for wild grass pollen (Tweddle et al. 2005). If the pore diameter was twice the width of the annulus, the pollen most likely belonged to Glyceria. Within the Cerealia-type both ‘real’ Cerealia (diameter more than 38 µm and a pore smaller than two times the annulus width) and wild grasses with relatively large pollen grains could be distinguished (fig. 4). The ratio between cereal-pollen and Glyceria-type pollen within the Cerealia-type was ca. 50:50.
The plan was to count a pollen sum (Σ-pollen, used for percentage calculations) of 400 pollen grains, excluding grasses and local taxa such as aquatics and wetland species. In most of the samples this number was reached (fig. 3), but microfossils in the upper and lower parts of the sampled profile were badly preserved, making counting and identification rather difficult. In those samples a pollen sum of 400 was not achieved; 250 grains of arboreal pollen was then set as a minimum. The groups and taxa included in the pollen sum are listed in table 1. The pollen taxa not included in the pollen sum and also the non-pollen palynomorphs are expressed as percentages based on the pollen sum.
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Trees |
Shrubs |
Herbaceous taxa |
|
Alnus |
Ericales |
Artemisia |
|
Betula |
Myrica |
Asteraceae liguliflorae |
|
Corylus |
Rhamnus cathartica |
Asteraceae tubiliflorae |
|
Fagus |
Rhamnus frangula |
Brassicaceae |
|
Fraxinus |
Viburnum |
Campanulaceae |
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Picea |
Caryophyllaceae | |
|
Pinus |
Chenopodiaceae | |
|
Quercus |
Circaea | |
|
Salix |
Fallopia | |
|
Tilia |
Melampyrum | |
|
Ulmus |
Plantago lanceolata | |
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Plantago major/media | ||
|
Polygonum persicaria-type | ||
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Rumex acetosella-type | ||
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Succisa pratensis Urtica | ||
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Table 1 Taxa included in the pollen sumAnalysis of macroremains | ||
Samples for the analysis of microfossils and macroremains were taken at corresponding depths; volumes of c. 7 cc were kept cool and sealed until the analysis of macrofossils started. Preparation of samples was done according to Mauquoy & Van Geel (2007). Samples were gently boiled in 5% KOH solution and then rinsed in a metal sieve with a mesh size of 160 μm. Residues were flushed into glass beakers with demineralised water. The residue was poured into a petri dish and placed under a binocular microscope. Volume percentages of charcoal and sand were estimated; the remaining part was categorized as organic debris. The species composition of the organic debris could not be identified in many of the samples, but in general the material consisted of a combination of leaf and root material. Fruits, seeds and other objects that could be identified were put in china cups with glycerin. A reference collection for fruits and seeds was used in addition to existing literature (Birks 2007; Körber-Grohne 1964; Mauquoy & Van Geel 2007). For practical reasons all fruits and seeds are referred to as seeds, despite the fact that this might not always be the correct botanical name. Samples that were selected for 14C dating were stored in millipore water. The record of macrofossils, shown as bars in Figure 3, represents counted numbers per sample of c. 7 cc.